At the beginning of the nineteenth century the Emperor Napoleon held Europe in his grasp. Seven decades later his nephew – sweating, agonised by gallstones – and successor mounted a horse to aid in a doomed invasion over the German border. Less than two months later Napoleon III had been captured, the French Army defeated and the Second Empire vanquished.
How were the French forces defeated so decisively? The Germans, led by Prussia, were not destined to defeat them. For one thing, their armies’ manoeuvring and tactical decisions left much to be desired, even if their strategic directions were graceful and crisply executed. German cannon may have been superior, but the French had better rifles. It was the organisation of the German army – with its superior military and non-military education – and manpower that proved the true advantage.
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